Writing Report: Sampling

2013 A Guide to Report Writing CONTENTS Page 1. 2 instauration PREPARATION 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 3 1 2 invention. 2 designing 2 grooming .. 2 seek . 3 CONTENTS OF A REPORT 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9 3. 10 3. 11 foot. 3 Title Page 3 Contents Page .. 3 The Summary The creative activity 3 The master(prenominal) Body of the Text .. 4 The Conclusion. 5 References . 5 Appendices . script Limits 5 Word/Page Guides . 6 7 4 expression AND CLARITY 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 Introduction. 7 construction Unity and Sequence . 7 Clarity the practice of signposts 10 5 STYLE 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 5. 6 Introduction.. 10 Words and Sentences 10 Tense . 11 engross of skirts and Diagrams .. 11 Presentation 1 How to improve your style .. . 11 12 6 DATA PRESENTATION 6. 1 6. 2 6. 3 Introduction.. 12 Tables or accedes? 12 The drop of Tables and figures in Reports . 12 14 7 USE OF REFERENCES 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4Introduction.. 15 wherefore Use References? 15 Citing References in the Text.. 15 Listing of References .. 16 16 REFERENCES 1 INTRODUCTION sound create verbally confabulation skills go away be of great importance to you both at College and in your c atomic number 18er.The adjudicate of this document is to help you to develop these skills by acting as a handy book of facts during the Academic Development module and the rest of your take to the woods. Effective written communication depends on adapting your typography to the circumstances, to the nature of the heart and, in a higher place any, to the requirements of the take iner. For this reason, you will bespeak to expend some(prenominal) different forms of communication in your carg angiotensin-converting enzymer. You may take away to write bank line or skillful ideas, business letters, memos, instruction manuals and so on. This guide concentrates on only one of these, the expert or business radical.However, the principles set unwrap here apply to many new(prenominal) type s of communication. The grievous elements in effective cover up physical composition atomic number 18 the proviso and widely distri preciselyed organisation of the report, the organise of the contentedness, the style of writing, the institution of mathematical and graphical data and the use of references. Each of these will be cover in the paginates that follow. 1 2 2. 1 PREPARATION Introduction How do you set ab show up writing your report? Before writing the report you must(prenominal)(prenominal) identify the aspiration, plan the confine and research the worldly. 2. 2 Purpose Consider who the report is being written for.A college date for the module instill will be read from cover to cover and will measure your sagacity of the matter. However, in industry it is likely that some people wint cave in time to read the full report so will only read the summary and conclusions. in that locationfore you need to appraise who the report is written for and what t hey atomic number 18 passing to do with it. Another tonality point to consider is why you ar writing the report. A report should constantly look at a blow over objective. Before you start writing beseech yourself why do they motivation it what is the place what do they trust it to cover what do they not deprivation it to cover? . 3 Planning Writing reports involves gathering facts. It is essential to start off by cogitate what you afford been asked to do. A dewy-eyed regularity of doing this is to write d give, in the ticker of a plain number of paper, the most important word or short phrase, then write down any ideas that link to the purpose of the report. (See Mind Mapping Study Guide on Moodle) . 2. 4 look for (a) Preparing to do your research Before looking up references, sk etc. out the chief(prenominal) things that you are looking for. This helps to vex the research to a greater extent purposeful, and move save you leaving off at a tangent or getting di stracted.You will, of course, find out things which change your original outline. (b) Doing the research add notes from as many different sources as you practically coffin nail books, journals, magazines, meshing documents, etc. Useful Tips (1) Write your notes on a separate piece of paper or card index card for each reference. This admits you to demeanor them out into a coherent dictate later on to twain the anatomical structure of the report. (2) For each reference, write down full details of author, title, chapter, date, etc. This give the gate save lots of time when you come to write your reference call, as you wont strike to go just nowtocks to the original documents. Section 7 ) 2 3 3. 1 CONTENTS OF A REPORT Introduction skillful and business reports are normally divided into a series of sectionalisations which require distinct and well recognised functions. These sections, in rewrite of presentation, are the summary, introduction, main be of the work, the give-and-take (or interpretation) and the conclusion. They may be followed by a list of references and appendices. The functions of each of these sections are described below. 3. 2 Title rascal The title page highlights the central theme of the report and ncludes the title, authors name, date and, if obligatory, the name of the person or organisation who commissioned the report. 3. 3 Contents Page The contents page is a list of all your chapters, sections, movements, sub headings, appendices and illustrations. all in all notwithstanding the shortest of reports should contrive a contents page. 3. 4 Summary The purpose of the summary is to give a very skeleton outline of the rest of the report for people who do not want to read the hearty of it, or who want to turn in what is in the report forrader adaptation it. The acid test is whether the content of the report is classify to someone who reads only the summary.The summary should, therefore, contain much(prenominal) c ultivation (from the introduction, main school schoolbook, hold forthion and conclusion) that is needed to comprehend the contents fully. The summary should be (a) written subsequently the rest of the report (b) presented at the start of the report (c) factual, concise, and in an appropriate style. (see Section 5 in this guide) The summary should not be a re-statement of the conclusion 3. 5 Introduction The purpose of the introduction is to attest the ratifier what the aim of the work is and how you are going to tackle it (see as well as Section 4. 3).In other words, you must verbalise the reader (a) what you are going to write about, (b) why you are going to write about it, (c) how you are going to deal with it. 3 The introduction should, therefore, complicate a sketch general background to the topic or task, a statement of the purpose of the work and an indication of the structure of the rest of the report. It may also include a statement to indicate related areas that y ou are not going to deal with (a consideration of x and y is outside the domain of this work). The introduction should be (a) brief (for a typical course assignment, ? 1 side), (b) plunder and concise, (c) stimulating. 3. 6 Main Body of the Text ( evidently take int put this as a heading ) Go back to Section 1 of the report does this introduction satisfy these criteria? The main body of the text should be consistent under a series of headings check to the purpose of the work. For drill, if the work is a scientific investigation, or a cartoon of some sort, the headings may be Materials and Methods Results Discussion (See Useful Tip below) A similar structure can be adopted for a whole range of task-based reports.For example, if you had to report to the provoke manager on the reorganisation of the acquire office, you might use headings such as Methods Used In The investigation Findings Alternative Courses of Action On the other hand, you may simply be required to review a to pic say the sheep industry in the UK. In this case the text may be divided by headings such as Organisation of The Sheep Industry Breeds Production Systems trade There is, of course, a whole range of other ways of organising the material, but except you do it, the importance of a clear logical system cannot be overemphasised.This is discussed further in Section 5. Useful Tips Discussion (Have as a heading if separate section) The discussion is probably the most difficult section of a scientific report to write, but it is very important. In the discussion you should attempt to evaluate (comment critically) on the information presented in the main text. If, for example, you have come across any inconsistencies in the information presented, you should weigh up the evidence for each argument within the discussion.If you have carried out your own research it is here you should compare your results with those of other published authors and, if the results differ, offer explanations for the differences. The unsloped news is that once you have reached the end of the discussion, you should know exactly what your 4 conclusions are 3. 7 Conclusion The purpose of the conclusion is to draw out the message from the work and to suggest what the consequences of that message are. It must be tremendous from the summary (which encapsulates the whole report) but should be included in it.In other words, the conclusion should say (a) what the body of the work tells us (b) what should be puzzle out about it (action, further research, etc. ). Thus, your conclusion on the reorganisation of the farm office might say, for example, that action x is the best alternative and this should be implemented in the next ii months Dont be worried if your conclusion is short get outd you have discussed / interpreted the topic fully, a short conclusion helps the reader to picture. 3. 8 References References should be listed after the conclusion, but before the appendices.Correct presentat ion of references is important and is described in Section 7. 3. 9 Appendices Appendices are utilise to present material which is not undeniable to an understanding of the report, but which may be helpful to the reader. By removing such expendable material (for example, extensive sets of data or supplementary information) from the body of the work, the communication is made simpler, shorter and clearer. 3. 10 Word / page limits Many assignment brief have a word / page limit stated if it is a word limit, you will need to include an accurate word reckon in your completed work.Pl quilt be cognisant that word / page limits are rigidly oblige so that any words / pages written after the limit has been reached will not be marked (or other penalties enforced as in the individual major project). 5 Count in Do not include Summary (text only) Reference list Introduction (text only) Appendices Main body (text only) Data in set backs Discussion (if applicable text Results in tables only ) Any figures (graphs, charts, diagrams) Conclusion (text only) Text displayed in tables Subheadings (summary etc) Captions for tables and figuresNB You need to read the specific instructions for final year projects as these may interpolate slightly from the above 3. 11 Word / page guide Occasionally, an estimate task may contain a word or page guide. This is intended to help you judge the number of words / pages you may need to complete the task. There is no specific penalty for work that locomote short of or exceeds a word / page guide. 6 4 4. 1 STRUCTURE AND CLARITY Introduction Your aim in expert or business reports should be to make your inwardness clear to the reader.In nightspot to do this you must ensure that your writing has a logical structure and that this structure is displayed to the reader by a whole series of signposts. These aspects are explained in this section. 4. 2 Structure Unity and Sequence A logical structure requires two things unity and sequence. The c oncept of unity is not an easygoing one to explain. To achieve unity, it is necessary to separate the various discrete elements of what you want to say into self-contained packages. One way of doing this is to create a mind map that identifies key areas and their relationships while helping you to plan the project.Start by writing the central theme in the middle of the paper, and working outwards. cipher 1 illustrates a way in which an assignment based on the Euro could be planned to achieve unity in this way Participating EU countries Non- disassociateicipating EU countries Countries Summary Key events Implementation Timetable Euro Facts Coin and none Denominations European integration and economic & monetary union The Road To The Euro The EURO Exchange evaluate Government & European Institutions Organisations Pros & Cons Political Economic Business / Trade Consumers Pro-Euro Anti-Euro Figure 1 Use of patterned notes 7Once you have identified the various topics in this way the y can be organised into paragraphs, and paragraphs on related subjects can be organised into sections. It is then necessary to decide on a logical sequence for these sections and paragraphs. The sequence depends on the subject matter and the approach. For example it may be in chronological order (e. g. description of the elevation cycle of sheep or a new product development process) in descending order of importance (e. g. factors affecting the yield of wheat or factors affecting food purchase) in ascending order of importance spark advance to a conclusion (e. . argument of a case). However, you should aim to present your ideas in an ordered sequence so that a reader will follow the line of reasoning without difficulty. Determining the best sequence is not unendingly an easy task, especially when dealing with complex subjects. If in doubt discuss your plan with your personal or module tutor they will be happy to help you think it out. 4. 3 Clarity the use of signposts To make yo ur writing easy to read it is important to provide frequent signposts that tell the reader where s/he is and where s/he is going. Some of the signposts you can use are listed below. a) Title Each piece of work should have a clear descriptive title that gives a guide to the content of the work. You should stay off journalistic titles that tell you little. Thus, The Prevention and Control of Mastitis in the dairy Herd is preferable to Getting to Grips with Mastitis Contents Page All but the shortest of reports should have a contents page. Introduction The introduction should tell the reader what you are going to deal with and how. In longer reports you may use an introduction in each section. Headings Headings and sub-headings should be used freely in good and business writing.You may have been told not to use heading in English essays, but this does not hold in technical and business reports where headings are very helpful in making your meaning clear. For this reason it is importa nt that the heading system reflects the structure of the report. You should, therefore, adopt a system of headings and sub-headings that show the relationships of the various sections. (b) (c) (d) 8 Here, for example, is a diagram that shows the structure of a chapter in Burns and Bush (2000). The Nature of Marketing search Marketing Marketing Research Defined The role of Marketing ResearchCharacteristics of Marketing Research Types of Marketing research Studies The Marketing selective information system The early of Market Research The Marketing Concept Marketing Strategy etc. Etc. Etc. Etc. Components of an MIS Etc. intragroup Reports Marketing watchword System Marketing Decision Support System Marketing Research System The heading system used in this case must be such that the reader knows, for example, that the section marked Internal Reports is part of the section on Components of an MIS, which is part of the section on The Marketing Information System.To achieve this all headings at the same level of sub-division must be the same. We might therefore have a series of headings as follows THE genius OF MARKETING RESEARCH The Marketing Information system Components of an MIS Internal Reports are defined.. (Bold capitals) (Bold put down case) (Indented bold lower case) (Indented bold lower case on same line as text) (e) Notation If it is necessary to cross reference to other sections of the report then a method of easily identifying the sections may be desirable. The most straightforward and generally used method of note is decimal numbering.It understandably shows the hierarchy of your thoughts. 1. 1. 6 THE NATURE OF MARKETING RESEARCH The Marketing Information system 1. 6. 1 Components of an MIS 1. 6. 1. 2 Internal Reports are defined.. 9 (f) Topic Sentences When you are reading you may find topic sentences a helpful device. These are sentences practically effectuate at the beginning of a paragraph, which are used as a summary of what is to follo w. That is, they are used to make a general statement about the topic which is then developed further in the rest of the paragraph. Useful Tips There is a range of different systems of headings and notation you can use.But remember whichever you use, unceasingly be consistent through and throughout the report. 5 5. 1 STYLE Introduction Do not be scared by the use of the word style. Style simply direction the way you use words and sentences in your writing. The style of effective reports is direct, simple and straightforward. This is easy to say but more difficult to achieve as George Bernard Shaw once wrote I am sorry to have written such a long letter but I did not have time to write a short one. Some rules to help you follow. 5. 2 Words and Sentences George Orwell wrote some helpful rules for scientists who write.He said a) neer use two words when one word will do, b) never use a big word when a small one will do, c) never use a long sentence when a short one will do. Some exa mples of word savings are shown in Table 1 Table 1 Superfluous words and alternatives break away English as to now when so that in college thus planning Superfluous words on account of the fact that in order to at the present time on the occasion of with the result that in the college environment it is apparent therefore forward planning 10 5. 3 Tense Reports are normally written in the past tense and impersonally. e. g.It is recommended that NOT I recommend that Never write you.. 5. 4 Use of Tables and Diagrams Never use words when you can put your message in poem (use a table). Never use numbers when you can use a picture (a diagram or graph) pictures are clearer than numbers numbers are clearer than prose and both save words. But always remember tables and diagrams do need some words of explanation. (Section 6) 5. 5 Presentation Be aware that poorly laid out work, which is badly sequenced with poor word bear on or handwriting, frequent spelling mistakes and incorrect grammar will lose you marks. . 6 How to improve your style Remember anyone can improve their writing skills through hard work, constructive feedback and practice. Below are some key tips for upward(a) your style. a) Work with a rough indite. Complete a rough draft and leave for a few days then re-read it or ask a friend to read it and make comments. This gives you time to reflect on your report. b) Avoid jargon. Never use jargon unless a) it saves words and b) your readers will understand it. c) Keep it clear and straightforward. A good style is one which is clear and concise so the reader can easily follow it.Useful Tips always check your work. Before you hand in any work, be it an assignment or an exam script, check it for errors in accuracy such as spelling and punctuation, readability and flow and clarity of structure Avoid plagiarism. You know the penalties (see the plagiarism section in the Academic Development module on Moodle) A CHALLENGE when you have written your draft copy go through it and see if you can remove 25% of the words without changing the meaning. 11 6 6. 1 DATA PRESENTATION Introduction We have already mentioned the value of tables and diagrams in saving words.They also help to make your message clear. However, they will only do this if the data is accurate and properly presented in the text. Some simple guidelines on this follow. 6. 2 Tables or Figures? A picture is worth a thousand words All material in your report that is not prose is called either a figure or a table (although photographs are known as plates). Figures include diagrams, graphs and charts. Figures are to be preferred to tables and prose, especially when complex relationships are involved. Tables are necessary when it is important to know exactly what the numbers are.Figures There are many different ways of presenting information as figures. Which one you choose depends on the purpose of the figures, and the nature of the data. Again, there are a number of important rules in presenting data in figures. Some ideas can be found in Figure 2. Tables There are different types of tables for different purposes. usually tables in reports are intended to demonstrate or support a particular point being made in the text. They therefore need to be designed to fulfil this purpose. A few guidelines on the presentation of demonstration tables are effrontery in Table X in Figure 3. . 3 The Use of Tables and Figures in Reports Numbering In technical reports tables and figures (Table 1n and Figure 1-n) should be numbered in sequence to allow you to refer to them in the text. Captions All tables and figures must have full, clear and denotive captions telling the reader exactly what the numbers and units are. The golden rule is that the message of any table or figure must be clear in isolation from the text. Captions go above a table but below a figure. Reference in the text You must always refer to the table or figure in the text before you come to it.Do not repeat details of the table or figure, but summarise what it shows e. g. tittle yield response to successive increments of employ due north shows the law of diminish returns (Figure 1 Table X). Source You must always give the source of the data depicted. Listing List tables and figures after the contents page. 12 50 (% of respondents) Components easy to see and compare All units clearly identified Key to explain bars 25 Axis starts from 0 0 Extremely Important Very Important Important Not at all Important 2000 2003 Reference clearly statedSource HAUC Consumer Attitude appraise (2000 and 2003) Figure X Comparison of Consumer Attitudes in 2000 and 2003 to the importance of price as a factor when buying food (% of respondents) Numbered in sequence for ease of reference in text Clear, full and explicit title underneath FIGURE Figure 2 Presentation of Figures (Example Data Only) 13 Grain yield response to successive increments of applied nitrogen follows the law if diminishing returns (Tab le X) Reference in text before table showing what the table shows Numbered in sequence for ease of reference in text All units clearly identifiedClear, full and explicit title AT THE TOP Units given as high in the table as possible to avoid repetition. If all units are the same they should be included in the title. Table X Grain yield response of wheat to successive increments of applied nitrogen Applied N (kg/ha) 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 Yield of wheat (t/ha) 2. 50 3. 50 4. 30 5. 00 5. 20 5. 20 5. 00 Responses to successive applications of 25kg of N (t/kg) +1. 00 +0. 80 +0. 70 +0. 20 0. 00 -0. 20 (Source Bloggs, 2003) Numbers to be compared presented in columns, not rows Columns arranged in some natural order of sizeReference clearly stated Figure 3 Presentation of Tables NB If you are presenting data in a table that you have created yourself, show this by putting (Source Authors own) under the table. 14 7 7. 1 USE OF REFERENCES Introduction Technical writing sometimes includes a bib liography but always includes a list of references. They have different purposes. A bibliography is a systematic list of sources of information on a particular subject which have been consulted although specific facts from them have not been cited in the text.References are the sources of information which have been cited in the text as evidence for statements and affirmations. This section provides an introduction to the purpose of using references and the rules which rule their use. 7. 2 Why Use References? In higher education and research, unfounded assertions are not acceptable. In other words, you cannot simply say that something is so without providing supporting evidence. Evidence can be obtained or it can be provided by reference to writings of someone who has published such research or who is an acknowledged authority on the subject.Naturally, this does not apply when your assertion is something that is widely understood. It does, however, apply to anything that is new, little known or open to argument. If I said that Shropshire sheep have four legs I would not need to provide evidence. If I said that they have five legs there may be some who would doubt my word. In such a case I would need to provide evidence, either by doing research (counting the number of legs of disarrange samples of the Shropshire sheep population), or by reference to the writing of an authority on this subject who had done such work. . 3 Citing References in the Text In order to draw the readers attention to the supporting evidence you simply write the surname of the author and the date of publication of the paper or book in the text. This can be done in more than one way, thus It has recently been shown that Shropshire sheep have five legs ( smith, 2012). or Smith (2012) recently demonstrated that Shropshire sheep have five legs. The reader now knows that you have an authority for your statement.